大连经内镜逆行胰胆管造影术相关穿孔的诊疗现

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经内镜逆行胰胆管造影术相关穿孔的诊疗现状


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作者:任威瑞





任威瑞

河北医科大学第三医院 消化内科




经内镜逆行性胰胆管造影术(Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangio Pancreatography,ERCP)已发展成为肝胰胆管疾病诊疗的重要手段,但与此同时,ERCP 相关穿孔(ERCP-related perforation,EP)也应引起临床医生的关注。早发现、早诊断及积极处理ERCP穿孔,是改善EP预后的关键。本文拟对EP的诊疗现状做一概述,从而为临床实践中EP的处理提供帮助。


自1968年经侧视十二指肠镜完成首例十二指肠乳头插管问世以来,经内镜逆行性胰胆管造影术(Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangio Pancreatography,ERCP)已从诊断程序发展成为肝胰胆管疾病治疗不可缺少的重要手段[1]。ERCP通常被认为是一项安全有效的操作,几项回顾性研究表明,ERCP即使是对老年患者等高危人群也是安全有效的[2,3]


然而,ERCP是一种存在潜在不良事件(adverse events,AEs)的侵入性操作,其AEs范围自各种轻微并发症至需额外住院或再次介入治疗的严重危及生命的并发症[4]由于存在研究设计、患者人群以及并发症的定义等差异,已发表的文献中关于ERCP并发症的发生率差异很大,从0.08%~10%不等[5-8]。在这些并发症中,与 ERCP 相关穿孔(ERCP-related perforation,EP)是最严重的并发症之一。据报道,EP的发生率为0.14%~1.6%,病死率达4.2%~ 29.6%[9-11]。 


EP如被忽视或处理不当,特别是壶腹周围病变,可引起感染、肠瘘、出血等使预后恶化的情况,严重者甚至死亡[12,13]。早发现、早诊断及积极处理ERCP穿孔,是改善EP预后的关键。本文拟对EP的诊疗现状做一概述,从而为临床实践中EP的处理提供帮助。


1. 


EP发生的危险因素



EP的发生与患者一般情况、胆胰疾病谱以及术者的技术操作水平等均有关[14]目前许多文献已经报道了多种EP发生的危险因素,对这些危险因素进行全面的术前评估可使内镜医师更好地进行术前沟通,准备操作治疗和预防潜在不良事件的发生。


已报道的危险因素包括ERCP术前就存在的危险因素,如Oddi括约肌功能障碍(Sphincter of Oddi dysfunction,SOD)、胆总管扩张、胃肠道术后解剖学发生改变(如:Billroth Ⅱ 式胃切除术,Roux-en-Y胃旁路术和whipple手术等)和壶腹周围憩室(periampullary diverticulum,PAD)的存在等,以及与ERCP本身相关的危险因素,如手术持续时间、内镜下乳头括约肌切开术(endoscopic sphincterotomy,EST)及预切开的应用、造影剂的注射等[15]


当然,内镜医师的技术操作水平与穿孔的发生率同样密不可分,术者操作不规范、不熟练容易导致穿孔的发生。一项荟萃分析还发现,穿孔的发生与某些手术附件或器械的应用也相关,使用不当或不熟练可导致EP的发生,如导丝损伤、套管或支架的置入等[14]此外,EP也是内镜下乳头球囊扩张术(Endoscopic papillary balloon dilation,EPBD)的最严重并发症之一,胆总管远端狭窄和球囊过度充气是EPBD术后壶腹部及胆胰管穿孔的最重要危险因素之一[16]相关研究表明,恶性肿瘤、年纪超80岁以及胰管括约肌切开可能是是ERCP相关穿孔死亡的重要危险因素[17]


2. 


EP的分类



EP一般可以依据穿孔发生的原因及部位进行分类,Stapfer分型(2000年)是最常用的分类,此外还有Howard分型(1999年)、Kim分型(2011年)等[5,18,19]


Stapfer分型基于解剖位置、损伤程度及机制方式共分4型:Ⅰ 型,由于内镜对肠壁过度施压造成的穿孔,常位于十二指肠游离壁;Ⅱ 型,壶腹周围损伤继发的腹膜后穿孔;Ⅲ 型,由器械导致的胰管或胆管穿孔,Ⅳ 型,仅表现为后腹膜积气。Ⅰ型穿孔较少见,通常发生于结构狭窄或异常的患者中,如Billroth Ⅱ式胃切除术后等[20,21]


Ⅱ型穿孔最常见,通常是由于EST切割超出了胆管壁内部分而引起[22]Ⅲ 型穿孔通常发生在胆胰管狭窄、插管用力较大、导丝置入、支架移位以及结石取出困难的病例中[23-25]。Ⅳ型穿孔最少见,一般不需干预。一项单中心研究报道,在一项涉及到79例的ERCP后穿孔的病例中,Ⅰ 型穿孔7例,Ⅱ 型穿孔54例,Ⅲ 型穿孔9例,Ⅳ 型穿孔6例,咽部或食管穿孔3例[20]。总体而言,ERCP后发生穿孔的风险约为0.4%,Ⅰ 型EP占穿孔的25%,Ⅱ 型占46%,Ⅲ 型占22%,Ⅳ 型占3%[26]


3. 


EP的临床表现、诊断与分级



早期识别及诊断ERCP穿孔,是改善EP预后的关键。有学者建议将早期识别定义为“内窥镜检查期间”,因为该定义具有最大的临床意义,允许内镜医师在适当的情况下尝试修复[27]。超过24 h的延迟诊断,死亡率可明显增加[9]EP患者可在术后数小时后出现腹痛、发热及白细胞增高,部分可出现气胸、气腹、皮下气肿以及门脉系统积气[28-30]


Stapfer Ⅰ 型EP早期诊断相对容易。依据临床症状、体征、内镜观察,必要时透视或造影可迅速识别 Ⅰ 型穿孔。


相比之下,Stapfer Ⅱ 型EP首选检查为CT扫描,CT可发现腹膜后积气或积液,部分 Ⅱ 型EP可在内镜下观察到。由于 Ⅱ 型EP多发生于腹膜后,腹部X线透视或平片检查,大部分患者无膈下游离气体的表现,易被忽视。腹膜后积气量并不反应穿孔大小或者并发症严重程度,而主要反应穿孔后继续操作的程度[31,32]


Stapfer Ⅲ 型EP的诊断也较为容易,一般通过X线透视或注射造影剂下导丝等的异常走向及其与胆胰管的关系便可发现。


Stapfer Ⅳ 型EP仅表现为腹膜后积气,多为偶然发现,患者无明显症状。一项涉及21例ERCP后无症状的患者行腹部CT扫描的前瞻性研究中,6名(29%)患者出现腹膜后积气,但均无临床症状,且术后恢复过程平稳[33]。Ⅳ 型EP可能和操作时肠道气压及微穿孔有关,部分患者行结肠镜检查后也有后腹膜积气的发生[34,35]。在没有症状的情况下腹膜后积气的存在值得仔细观察,但可能不需要干预。ERCP后出现症状的患者若发现腹膜后积气,需认真鉴别穿孔类型,尤其需注意胰腺炎与穿孔的临床表现类似或可能同时出现[31,36]


一项涉及36例ERCP后出现长时间腹痛后接受诊断性CT扫描的研究中,急性胰腺炎23例(64%),十二指肠穿孔11例(31%),胰腺炎合并十二指肠穿孔6例(17%)[31]。对于术后24h内出现类似胰腺炎症状者均应及时行腹部CT检查,注意排除EP。


总之,EP的早期识别与诊断很重要,内镜操作期间或者操作后即可发现最好;腹膜炎与气肿是EP最重要的临床症状;腹部CT是首选检查手段,腹部X线透视、平片或造影是重要的辅助手段[9]。ERCP术后穿孔可以根据严重程度分为轻度、中度以及重度三级,轻度:只有极少量的液体或造影剂漏出,可以在3天或更短时间内治愈;中度:明确穿孔且需接受4~10天治疗;重度:需10天以上的治疗或需介入治疗[27]


4. 


EP的治疗



EP的治疗方法主要取决于患者的一般情况、合并症、EP的分类、分级以及影像学的表现[37,38]。EP一般治疗原则是给予患者禁食水、鼻胃管或鼻十二指肠管减压引流、补液、营养治疗以及静脉应用抗生素治疗[39]。保守治疗失败或手术介入迟滞将会导致患者住院时间延长,严重者甚至导致死亡,因此应严格把握保守治疗的适应证,严格观察病情变化,一旦发生变化必须及时处理[17]。手术治疗的适应证取决于EP的类型、大小与位置。对于有大量造影剂渗漏、腹膜后持续积气或积液、脓毒学症、持续性胆道梗阻或合并胆管炎的患者以及在短暂非手术治疗后症状没有改善的患者,应及时行手术治疗[40]


总体而言,综合多项研究发现,20%~50%的EP患者需要行手术治疗[8,20,26,41-44]。如EP可迅速得到诊断,则尽可能早期在内镜下封闭穿孔。如果EP是在内镜操作期间或者操作后12小时被发现的,应首选内镜治疗。若超过12小时,CT检查造影剂无外漏或无持续的液体积聚也应考虑内镜治疗[9]


内镜治疗的方式主要有:


① 传统内镜夹TTSC(through-the-scope clip):主要用于内窥镜尖端对肠壁过度施压造成的穿孔以及EST后引起的EP[41,45]


② 金属钛夹联合尼龙绳荷包缝合:用于闭合十二指肠游离壁较大的穿孔[46]


③ OTSC系统(Over-the-scope clip):用于无法手术且一般情况较好的穿孔较大的患者[47]


④ 覆膜支架:临时放置全覆膜自膨胀金属支架以治疗EST引起的穿孔效果良好[48]


⑤ 内镜套扎治疗:可用于修复十二指肠游离壁的EP;


⑥ 纤维蛋白胶:有文献报道纤维蛋白胶可有效封闭位于十二指肠游离壁的EP,但其临床应用较少,需进一步研究[49]


⑦ 内镜介入负压引流法:2015年Loske G等报道了首例使用负压引流技术在内镜辅助下治疗EP的病例,治疗效果良好,值得进一步研究[50]

 

外科手术主要包括胆总管切开术、取石术、T管引流、穿孔修复、脓肿引流以及胆总管空肠吻合术或胰十二指肠切除术等[26]值得注意的是,在ERCP相关损伤导致的穿孔的情况下,穿孔的位置可能在剖腹手术中也无法发现[51]


一项持续15年的针对EP的回顾性研究发现,Stapfer Ⅰ 型穿孔需立即行手术治疗,Stapfer Ⅱ Ⅲ 型穿孔在无明显并发症(腹腔积液,腹膜刺激和/或败血症)的情况下以及 Ⅳ 穿孔可进行保守处理[52]


对于 Ⅰ 型穿孔,需评估能否首选内镜治疗,如若不能则应立即进行外科手术治疗。于 Ⅱ 型穿孔,需行CT检查以评估穿孔程度,较大的穿孔应即刻手术;对于较小的穿孔,可首选保守治疗,80%的Ⅱ型穿孔患者应用非手术治疗是有效的 [9,39]对于 穿孔,首选保守治疗,但需密切监视,必要时胆管或胰管引流[14]对于 Ⅳ 型穿孔,以保守治疗为主[9]


5. 


EP的预防



对于ERCP相关的穿孔首先应提高操作者的技能,由训练有素的内镜医师和助手遵循以下技术原则进行[53]


① 括约肌切开准确定位于11点至1点范围;


② EST时需谨慎小心,有步骤地切开,避免“拉链式”切割;


③ 根据乳头、胆管及结石大小确定括约肌切开长度;


④ 谨慎采取相应治疗方法管理十二指肠乳头旁憩室、憩室内乳头和Billroth Ⅱ式胃切除术等存在解剖变异的病例;


⑤ 因困难插管而行十二指肠乳头预切开术,穿孔风险高,应用DUAL刀等新型器械可降低穿孔的风险;


⑥ 对于较大胆管结石患者,慎重单独依靠括约肌切开术,建议EST联合球囊扩张;


⑦ 操作动作轻柔,尽量在X线监控下进行操作,术后密切注意监视,及时发现穿孔征象,以便尽早处置;


⑧ 操作过程中采用二氧化碳注气,鉴于胃肠道对二氧化碳的吸收比氮气快约160倍,可最大限度减少患者腹膜后积气。此外,为预防EP的发生,还应注意患者围手术前的评估,包括患者一般情况、合并症、手术史,术前做好基础疾病的处理和相关手术预案[14]


6. 


总结



经过五十余年的应用与不断发展,ERCP目前已成为一项安全有效的成熟技术,对胆胰疾病的诊疗作用越来越大,但与此同时,ERCP操作相关的穿孔也应引起临床医生的关注。熟悉EP发生的危险因素,注意患者围手术前的评估,严格把握适应证,确定合适的操作方式,术中密切监控,尽量避免穿孔的发生。一旦发生穿孔,提倡早期发现、早期诊断及积极处理,依据患者的具体情况结合穿孔分型,多学科联合制定个体化的诊疗方案,最大程度减轻患者痛苦,促进患者早日康复。


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